Social Science VSQ (2 Marks)

To gain acceptance, the new dynasties performed religious customs and took on new titles. It helped to make them part of kshtriyas and involved in war to declare their power and shape kingdoms for themselves.

Tax free lands granted to Brahmanas were called Brahmadeya. As a result of these grants, a large number of Brahman settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley as in other parts of south India. Land gifted to the temples was called Devadana. Often entire villages were given to the villagers.

Kalhana was a great poet who composed a long Sanskrit poem containing the history of kings who ruled over Kashmir. He used a variety of sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts and earlier histories, to write his account. Unlike the writers of prashastis, he was often critical about rulers and their policies.

These states were closely associated with peasants, traders and Brahmanas. The resources were obtained from peasants, cattle-keepers, and artisans who were the producers. They were compelled to surrender part of what they produced. The traders had to pay revenue. The functionaries for collecting revenue were generally from influential families or from the close relatives of the kings.

Kings often rewarded Brahmanas with grants of land.

• These were recorded on copper plates.
• The plates were given to those who received the land.

Vetti and Kadamai were two taxes imposed on the people by the Chola kings. Vetti was a tax that was not collected in the form of cash but in the form of forced labour. And kadamai was a land revenue.

States obtained resources from producers such as peasants, cattle-keepers and artisans. They had to give half of the things that they produced.There were two method of Collecting Resources:

• The Kings claimed that they were lords of the lands and rent should be paid to them.
• Compelling and forcing the producers was another method of obtaining resources.

Rulers to demonstrate their power ans resources by building large temples during medival era. So, when they attacked one another’s kingdoms, they often chose to target temples, which were sometimes extremely rich.

In each of states, resources were obtained from the producers, that is, peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans, who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of what they produced. Sometimes these were claimed as “rent” due to a lord who asserted that he owned the land.

Vijayalaya belonged to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur. He captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century. He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini there.

The two best remembered Chola rulers were Rajaraja I and his son and successor Rajendra I.
The great Chola ruler Rajendra I attacked the Ganga valley (North India), Sri Lanka and some countries of South-East Asia, developing a powerful navy for these military expeditions.

The region around modern Madurai was controlled by the Pandyas. Marco Polo, a foreign traveller visited the Pandya kingdom. The greatest king of the Pandyas was Nedunchezhiyan. The kingdom started declining in the 14th century.

It was the trend to demonstrate power and resources by building large temples. The rulers often invested a lot in the decoration and maintenance of the temples. So the foreign conquerors made them target first. The most prominent example of it was the temple 6f Somnath in Gujarat looted several times by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazani who came from Afghanistan. Much of the wealth he carried away was used to create a splendid capital city at Ghazani.

From ninth to thirteenth century, three powers Gurjara- Pratihara of western India, Rashtrakutas of the north western Deccan and Palas of Bengal, fought for control over Kanauj. As there were three powers in this long drawn conflict, historians often describe it as tripartite struggle.

Revenue in the kingdom was collected from peasants, cattle, keepers, artisans and traders. Members of influential family were appointed by the king to collect revenue. These positions were often hereditary.

Chola temples were the Centers of Craft production in the big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda. Cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra are an exclusive example of architectural and Sculptural marvels. Temples were not only the places of worship, they were the hub of economic, social and cultural life. Chola bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world.

The most famous works are:

• Jaideva - He wrote 'Geet Govinda'.
• Chand Bardai - He wrote 'Prithviraja Raso' describing the adventures of great Chauhan King Prithviraj.

Prashastis tell us about the rulers how they depicted themselves as valiant, victorious warriors. Learned Brahmans were those who helped in the administration, so prashastis may not be literally true.

The Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings), araiyar (chief), etc. as markers of respect, and entrusted them with important offices of the state at the centre.

Dantidurga was a Rashtrakuta chief in Deccan. Initially Rashtrakutas were the subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. Dantidurga, in the mid-eighth century overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual known as 'hiranya-garbha'. It was thought to lead to the rebirth of the sacrificer as a kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.

The 'agricultural life' of Chola period was very prosperous. River Kaveri flowing frequently, disposed fertile soil on the fields. In many areas two crops were grown in a year. In many areas crops were watered artificially and a variety of methods were used for irrigation.

Prithviraja III (1168-1192) was a Chahamanas, later known as Chauhan ruler. He ruled over the regions around Delhi and Ajmer. He defeated Sultan Muhammad Ghori, an Afghan conqueror in 1191. But only one year after it in 1192 he was defeated by Ghori. It was the end of his rule and life both

The sabha had separate committees to look after irrigation works, gardens, temples, etc. Names of those eligible to be members of these committees were written on small tickets of palm leaf and kept in an earthenware pot, from which a young boy was asked to pick the tickets, one by one for each committee.

Names of eligible members were written on small tickets of palm leaf. These tickets were put into an earthen pot from which a young boy was asked to pick the tickets, one by one for each committee.

The Chola administration was highly organized and efficient. The King was an important person. Nadu, groups of villages, had many administrative functions including dispensing justice and collecting taxes, 'ur' was a village assembly and they looked after the administration of the village.

I think, the entire subcontinent was ruled by one kingdom or another. Hence, it obvious that every present-day state must have had a kingdom in the past.

The Sabha had separate committees to manage the works of irrigation and other works of gardens, temples, etc. The members for each committee were elected through a strict process. Names of eligible candidates were written on small tickets of palm leaf. The tickets were put into an earthenware pot. A young boy was asked to take out the tickets one by one for each committee.

The Chola administration was very well organised and efficient. The administration of Chola dynasty was essentially monarchical in character divided into nine provinces. These were called mandalams. The king appointed viceroy to look after the provincial administration. They sent regular information to the king.

Prashastis, often written by learned Brahmanas, were details of the functioning of a king. They may not be literally true. They tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves- as valiant, victorious warriors etc. Brahmanas were rewarded by grants of land which were recorded on copper plates.

Irrigation system during Chola ruler was much improved. A variety of methods were applied for it. Many wells were dug; huge tanks were also constructed to collect water. The kings themselves took interest in organizing labour and resources and extensive planning.

The parties involved in the “tripartite struggle” were the rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rastrakuta and Pala dynasties who fought for the control over Kanauj. Because there were three parties in this long drawn conflict, historians often describe it as the “tripartite struggle”.

During seventh century a new class of rulers emerged. They were the subordinates or samantas under the influence of big landlords or warriors. Later they themselves gained power and wealth and declared themselves to be maha- samantas, maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a circle or region).

The Chola rulers like Rajaraja and Rajendra built two great temples of Thanjavur and Ganaikonda-cholapuram respectively. Temples were the nuclei of settlements during this period. They were the centres of craft production and also controlled the financial aspects related to them. Hence they were not only the religious centres but also the hub of economic, social and cultural life as well.

In the mid-eighth century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb). When this ritual was performed with the help of Brahmanas, it was thought to lead to the “rebirth” of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.

The second battle of Tarain was fought between Mohammed Ghori and Prithviraja. Ghori defeated Prithviraja in this battle.