Psychology 6 Marks Question

Theory of multiple intelligence -
Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligence. According to him, intelligence is not a single identity gather distinct types of intelligence exist. Eight types of intelligence are:

• Linguistic.
• Logical-mathematical.
• Spatial.
• Musical.
• Bodily-kinaesthetic.
• Interpersonal.
• Intrapersonal.
• Naturalistic.

InteHigence -
Wechsler defined intelligence as the global capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with his\her environment.
Triarchic theory of intelligence -
Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence. Sternberg views intelligence as the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish one's goals and those of one's society and culture. According to this theory, there are three basic types of intelligence.

• Componential intelligence.
  • Metal components.
  • Performance components.
  • Knowledge acquisition components.
• Experiential intelligence.
• Contextual intelligence.

Accounting to the model developed by J.P. Das,Jack Nagleri and Kirby, intellectual activity involves three functional units of brain. namely A-Arousal/Attention, S-Simultaneous processing, S-successive processing and P-Planning respectively.

1. Arousal/Attention: An optimal level of focuses our attention to the relevant aspect of a problem. Too little arousal would interfere with attention.
2. Simultaneous and Successive Processing: Information is intergrated into our knowsladge system simultaneously or successively. In this process, relations among various concepts are integrated into a meaningful pattern for comprehension.
   1. Planning: After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated. For example, planning a time schedule of study by giving more time or studying with a friend.

Theory of multiple intelligences - Howard Gardner
Principles:

1. Intelligence is not a single entity.
2. Intelligences are not independent of each other.
3. Different type of intelligences interact and work together to find solutions to a problem.

Types of Multiple Intelligences:

1. Linguistic.
2. Musical.
3. Spatial.
4. Bodily kinaesthetic.
5. Interpersonal.
6. Intrapersonal.
7. Naturalistic.
8. Logic - Mathematical.

Nature and Nurture Interplay
Role of nature
Study on identical twins
Correlation

1. Identical twins reared together (.90).
2. Reared apart (.72).
3. Fraternal twins reared together (.60).
4. Siblings reared together (.50).
5. Siblings reared apart (.25).

Studies of adopted children’s intelligence show more similarity to their biological parents
Role of nurture:

• As children grow, their intelligence levels move closer to their adaptive parents.
• Environment deprivation lowers level of intelligence while enriched environment increases level of intelligence.

Hence heredity sets the range within which an individual’s intelligence is shaped by support and opportunities of the environment.

Intelligence:
Wechsler defined intelligence as the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with his\her environment.
Pass Model of Intelligence:
Developed by J P Dass, Jack Naglieri & Kirby - 1994.
This model is comprised of the following:
P - PLANNING.

A - AROUSAL\ATTENTION.

S - SIMULTANEOUS.

S - SUCCESSIVE.

• PASS model is based on three basic neurological systems.

Arousal\Attention:
Arousal and attention enables a person to process information.

• An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention on the relevant aspects of problem.
• Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention.

Simultaneous processing:

• Takes place when we perceive the relations among various concepts and integrate them into a meaningful pattern for comprehension.
• In RPM test, by grasping the meaning and relationship between the given option of designs and the given abstracted figure, the correct option is chosen. Simultaneous processing of all given figures helps in choosing the correct option.

Successive processing:

• Takes place when all the information is remembered serially so that recall of one leads to the recall of another, e.g. in learning of digits, alphabets, multiplication tables etc, successive processing helps.

Planning: After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated.

• It allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach the target and evaluate their effectiveness.
• If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirement to task or situation.

Intelligence is the result of heredity and environment.
Role of Heredity.
Study of identical twins.
Correlation.

• Reared together. (.90)
• Reared apart. (.72)
• Fraternal twins reared together. (.60)
• Siblings reared together. (.50)
• Siblings reared apart. (.25)

Studies of adopted children's intelligence show more similarity to their biological parents.
Role of Environment.

• As children grow, their intelligence level moves closer to their adaptive parents.
• Environment deprivation lowers intelligence while enriched environment increases level of intelligence.

Hence heredity sets the range within which an individual's intelligence is shaped by support and opportunities of the environment.

Assessment is the measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and their valuation using different standardised methods.
The following are the key features of psychological assessment:

1. Psychological text: It is an objective and standardised measure of the mental age and/or behavioural tendencies of a person. These tests have been developed to study different aspects of psychology such as intelligence, aptitude etc. Psychological tests are used for clinical diagnosis, guidance, selection, placement and training. Besides objective tests some projective tests have also been developed such as the Draw a person test.
2. Case study: It is an intensive study of an individual vis-à-vis her/his psychological attributes and psychosocial and physical environment. Case studies of eminent personalities provide an opportunity for learning to everyone. These are generated by methods such as interview, observation, questionnaire and psychological tests.

Culture fair tests: These tests are culture appropriate, i.e., one does not differentiate against individuals belonging to different cultures. These tests analyses experiences common to all cultures or are tests which do not require use of language. This includes non-verbal tests and performance tests.
Culture biased tests: These tests show a bias to the culture in which they are developed. Therefore, educated middle class while people perform better at tests developed in America and Europe as compared to their comterparts in Asia and Africa.

Creativity - The ability to produce ideas, objects and problem solutions that are novel, appropriate and useful.

• Creativity manifests in every field of life.
• Everyday life (pottery, cooking) - As well as high level - inventions, discoveries.
• The level of creativity varies in individuals and in spheres.
• It is affected by complex interactions of heredity - and environment.

Creativity and Intelligence

• Positive - Correlation between intelligence and creativity.
• A certain level or intelligence is required for creativity.
• Tests of creativity are open ended and intelligence tests are more structured.

Triarchic theory - Proposed by Robert Sternberg.

• Definition by Sternberg.
• Elements.

1. Componential Intelligence.
   1. Knowledge acquisition, learning and acquisition.
   2. Meta/high order components involves planning.
   3. Performance component - Doing things.
2. Experiential Intelligence - Reflects in creative performance. Persons high on this aspect, integrate different experiences in an original way to make new discoveries and inventions.
3. Contextual Intelligence - Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to their present environment or select a more favourable environment. street smartness/business sense.

Creativity and intelligence are positively correlated because high ability is component of creativity. A highly intelligent person may not be creative but all the creative persons are definitely high in intelligence.

1. Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions that are novel, appropriate and useful.
2. Intelligence is subset of creativity.
3. Terman found that persons with high IQ were not necessarily creative. The same time, creative ideas could come from persons who did not even one of those identified as gifted, followed up through out their adult life, had become well known for creativity in some field.
4. Researchers have found that both high and low level of creativity can be found in highly intelligent children and also children of average intelligence. The same person can be creative as well as intelligent but it is not necessary that intelligent once must be creative.

Creative tests are different from intelligence tests:

1. Creative tests measure creative thinking ability whereas intelligence tests measure general mental ability.
2. Creative tests measure convergent and divergent thinking whereas intelligence test measure convergent thinking only.
3. Creative tests measure imagination and spontaneous expression to produce new ideas, to see new relationship, to guess causes and consequences and ability to put things in a new context. Intelligence tests measure potential.
4. In creative tests questions are open-ended that have no specified answers whereas intelligence tests mostly use close-ended questions.

According to PASS model, theory based on information processing approach, intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of the three neurological systems called the functional units of the brain.
These units are responsible for:

• the arousal and attention.
• the simultaneous and successive processing.
• the planning.

Arousal and Attention:

1. State of arousal helps in attending to the stimuli.
2. Arousal and attention enable a person to process information.
3. Optimal level of arousal focuses our attention on relevant aspects of a problem.
4. Too much or too little arousal interferes with attention and performance. Example: Arousal helps the individual to focus ones attention on reading, learning and revising the contents of the material to be learnt.

Simultaneous and Successive Processing:

Simultaneous Processing refers to perceiving relations amongst various concepts and integrate them into meaningful patterns for comprehension!
For e.g., in Raven’s standard progressive matrices (RSPM Test) choosing appropriate pattern by comprehending relationship.

Successive Processing refers to recalling information serially so that one recall leads to another recall. For example, learning of digits and letters and multiplication tables.

Planning:

1. After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated.
2. Planning involves reaching to the target and evaluating their effectiveness. Planning allows us to think of possible courses of action and implementing them.
3. If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or the situation.
4. For example, to take a test scheduled by your teacher, you’d have to set goals, plan a time schedule of studies, get clarifications in case of problems or think of other ways to meet your goals.

All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. They vary in their intellectual ability. Some are exceptionally bright and some are below average. Some possess high IQ range while others have average or below average. All the scores gradually and symmetrically decline towards both the sides but never touch the X-axis.

1. The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve. This type of distribution is symmetrical around the central value, called the mean.
2. On the basis of IQ, people are classified in different groups. It is clear that only 2.2 percent people who possess above 130 IQ range are very intelligent or very superior, their IQ score is more than 130.
3. People falling between 90-109 IQ range are considered as average. The mean IQ score in a population is 100. People with IQ scores in the range of 90-110 have normal intelligence.
4. Those with IQ below 70 are suspected to have ‘mental retardation’. Mental retardation refers to sub-average intellectual functioning. The behaviour is maladaptive and manifest in four forms i.e., mild, moderate, severe and profound mental retardation. The extreme right also lie to 2.2 percent population which are known as gifted i.e., they enjoy exceptional intelligence, exceptional talent and exceptional creativity.

Classification of People on the Basis of IQ

IQ Range	Descriptive Label	Percent in the Population
Above 130	Very superior	2.2
120-130	Superior	6.7
110-119	High average	16.1
90-109	Average	50.0
80-89	Low average	16.1
70-79	Borderline	6.7
Below 70	Mentally challenged/ retarded	2.2

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Yes, culture, which is a set of beliefs, customs, attitudes and achievements in art of literature, affects the process of intellectual development.

• According to Sternberg, intelligence is a product of culture.
• Vyotsky believes that while elementary mental operations are common, higher mental activities like problem-solving and thinking are cultinally produced.
• Technological Intelligence:

1. Promotes an individualistic ancient action.
2. Individuals in technologically educated western societies possess this kind of intelligence.
3. They are well sersed in skills of attention, observation, analysis, speed, etc.

• Integral Intelligence:

1. ​​​​​​​Intelligence in the Indian tradition is integral intelligence.
2. It views intelligence from a holistic perspective.
3. It gives equal attention to cognitive and non-cognitive processes, as well as their integration.
4. 'Buddhi' is the knowledge of one's own self based on conscience, will and desire.
5. It has effective, motivational as well as cognitive components.

• It includes:

1. Cognitive competence (discrimination, problem-solving).
2. Social competence (respect for elders, concern for others, respecting opinions of others).
3. Emotional competence (self regulation, self monitoring).
4. Entrepreneural competence commitment, persistence, patience).

1. Whether intelligence is evolved or it is developed due to the environment, is a question of debate.
2. Lot of studies have been done to determine the role of nature and nurture.
3. Here we will discuss the controversy with the help of various twin studies, adoption studies and environmental studies.

On the basis of twin studies co-relation results are as follows:

1. Identical twins reared together correlate 0.90.
2. Identical twins reported early in childhood and reared in different environments correlate 0.72.
3. Fraternal twins reared together correlate 0.60.
4. Siblings reared together correlate 0.50.
5. Siblings reared apart correlate 0.25.

• Adoption Studies before the Age of 6-7 Years

These studies of adopted children show that children's intelligence is more similar to their biological parents.

These studies provide evidence that intelligence is determined because of nature.

• Adoption Studies after the Age of 6-7 Years

According to these studies as children grew older tends to more closer to that of their adoptive parents.

Environmental Studies:

Evidence for the influence of environment (Nurture) on the basis of Twin studies.

1. The intelligence score of twins reared apart as they grew older, tends to more closer to that of their adoptive parents.
2. On the basis of differences in environment, children from disadvantaged homes adopted into families with higher, socio-economic status exhibit an increase in their intelligence scores.
3. Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence. Factors such as nutrition, good family background and quality schooling increase growth rate of intelligence.
4. There is general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of complex interaction of heredity (Nature) and environment (Nurture).
5. Heredity provides the potentials and sets a range of growth whereas environment facilitates the development of intelligence.

Verbal tests of intelligence	Performance tests of intelligence
It require subjects to give verbal responeses either orally or in a written form.	It do not require subjects to give written response for answering the item.
The subject do not require to manipulate any material or objects to perform tasks.	The subjects not require to manipulate any material or objects to perform tasks.
It can be administered only to literate people.	It can be easily administered to persons from different cultures.

Gardner’s theory based on information processing approaches functions on three basic principles:

1. Intelligence is not a single entity, there exist multiple intelligences.
2. The intelligences are independent from each other.
3. Different types of intelligences work together to provide a solution of problem. Gardner has so far proposed eight intelligences, however all individuals do not possess them in equal proportion. The particular situation or the context decides the prominence of one type of intelligence over the others.

Following are the eight types of intelligence:

1. Linguistic: This is related to reading, writing, listening, talking, understanding etc. Poets exhibit this ability better than others.
2. Logical-Mathematical: This type of intelligence deals with abstract reasoning and manipulation of symbols involved in numerical problems. It is exhibited in scientific work.
3. Spatial: This type of intelligence is involved in perceiving third dimension formation of images. It is used while navigating in space, forming, transforming and using mental images. Sailors, engineers, surgeons, pilots, care drivers, sculptors and painters have highly developed spatial intelligence.
4. Musical: Persons with musical intelligence show sensitivity to pitch and tone required for singing, playing and instrument, composing and appreciating music etc.
5. Bodily Kinesthetic: It requires the skills and dexterity for fine coordinated motor movements, such as those required for dancing, athletics, surgery, craft making etc.
6. Inter-personal: It requires understanding of motives, feelings and behaviours of other people. Sales people, politicians, teachers, clinicians and religious readers have high degree of inter-personal intelligence.
7. Intra-personal: It is related to understanding one’s self and developing a sense of identity, e.g., philosophers and spiritual leaders.
8. Naturalistic: It is related to recognizing the flora and fauna, i.e., natural world and making a distinction in the natural world. It is more possessed by hunters, farmers, tourists, students of biological sciences etc.

1. Robert J. Sternberg proposes a theory of intelligence based on information processing approach in 1985 known as the Triarchic theory of intelligence.
2. According to Sternberg, intelligence is an ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish ones goals and those of ones society and culture.
3. This theory attempts to understand the cognitive processes involved in problem solving.
4. According to him there are three types of intelligences:

1. Componential intelligence (Analytical): This dimension specifies the cognitive processes that underlie an intelligent behaviour.

This dimension serves three different functions:

1. Knowledge acquisition components: These are the processes used in learning, encoding, combining and comparing information.
2. Metacomponents: 'Meta' means higher. These are executive processes. They control monitor and evaluate cognitive processing.
3. Performance components: These components execute strategies prepared by metacomponents to perform a task.

For example, while studing students plan the lesson chapterwise, they make schedules, categories the learning material and do integrate the information to comprehend well.

2. ​​​​​​​Experiential intelligence (Creative): This dimension specifies how experiences effect intelligence and how intelligence effects a person's experiences.

1. ​​​​​​​Experiential intelligence refers to an individual's ability to make use of one's past experiences to deal with novel situations creatively and effectively.
2. This intelligence is mostly high among scientists and creative people.
3. For example if a person is trapped in a room, he finds out a way of coming out of the room using rope or ladder etc. in a creative way. He had some knowledge of getting out from this situation by watching out a movie few years back.

3. ​​​​​​​Contextual intelligence (Practical): This dimension specifies the ability to deal with environmental demands on daily basis.

1. ​​​​​​​It is individual's ability to make use of his/her potential to deal with day-to-day life.
2. It may be called street smartness or 'business sense'.
3. People high in this ability are successful in life.

It deals with the ways people handle effectively their environmental demands and adapt to different contexts with available resources.