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Question 12 Marks
List the hormones secreted by the following: Adrenal.
Answer
Adrenal: The adrenal gland is divided into two parts, the outer adrenal cortex and the inner adrenal medulla. Hormones of adrenal cortex include the following:
  1. Mineralocorticoids: The hormone secreted is known as aldosterone.
  2. Glucocorticoids: The hormone secreted is cortisol.
Hormones of adrenal medulla are adrenaline and nor-adrenalin.
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Question 22 Marks
Define the following: Hormone.
Answer
Hormones: Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate physiological processes in living organisms. They act upon specific cells/ tissues/ organs which are called target cells/ tissues/ organs.
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Question 32 Marks
Define the following: Exocrine gland.
Answer
Exocrine glands: Glands that discharge secretions into ducts are known as exocrine glands. Sebaceous gland in the skin, salivary gland in the buccal cavity, etc. are examples of exocrine glands.
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Question 42 Marks
Define the following: Endocrine gland.
Answer
Endocrine glands: Glands that do not discharge their secretions into ducts are known as endocrine glands. Instead, these glands discharge their secretions directly into the blood. Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, etc. are examples of endocrine glands.
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Question 52 Marks
Write short notes on the functions of the following hormones:
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Answer
Parathyroid hormone (PTH): It is secreted by Parathyroid gland. It increases the $Ca ^{2+}$ levels in the blood. PTH promotes the reabsorption of calcium from nephrons and also, promotes the absorption of calcium from digested food. Thus, it plays an important role in calcium balance in the body.
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Question 62 Marks
Write short notes on the functions of the following hormones: Thyroid hormones.
Answer
Thyroid hormones: Thyroid hormones play an important role in the regulation of the basal metabolic rate. These hormones also support the process of red blood cell formation. Thyroid hormones control the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Maintenance of water and electrolyte balance is also influenced by thyroid hormones. Thyroid gland also secretes a protein hormone called thyrocalcitonin (TCT) which regulates the blood calcium levels.
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Question 72 Marks
How is diabetes insipidus different from diabetes mellitus?
Answer
S. No
Diabetes Insipidus
Diabetes Mellitus
1.
It is a disorder caused by deficiency of vasopressin.
It is a disorder caused by deficiency of insulin.
2.
Urine does not show glucose.
Glucose appears in the urine.
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Question 82 Marks
George comes on a vacation to India from US. The long journey disturbs his biological clock and he suffers from jet lag. What is the cause of his discomfort?
Answer
Jet lag is caused by the disruption of the body clock as it is out of synchronisation with the unfamiliar time zone of the two different parts of the world. The body experte experiences different patterns of light and dark than it is normally used to which disrupts the natural sleep-wake cycle. Melatonin is a hormone that plays a key role in body rhythms and jet lag. After the Sun sets, the eyes perceive darkness and alert the hypothalamus to begin releasing melatonin, which promotes sleep. Conversely, when the eyes perceive sunlight, they tell the hypothalamus to with-hold melatonin production. However, the hypothalamus cannot read just its schedule instantly, it takes several days.
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Question 112 Marks
Name any two hormones which produce second messengers to bring about the physiological effects in the target tissue.
Answer
Insulin, glucagon, follicle-stimulating hormone.
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Question 122 Marks
Differentiate between hyperglycaemia and hypoglycaemia.
Answer
Differences between hyperglycaemia and hypoglycaemia are:
S. No.
Hyperglycaemia
Hypoglycaemia
1.
It results from hyposecretion of insulin.
It results from hypersecretion of insulin.
2.
Its symptoms include high blood glucose level, breakdown of muscles tissues, loss of weight and tiredness.
Its symptoms include low blood glucose level, hunger, sweating, irritability, double vision.
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Question 132 Marks
How does parathyroid hormone influences calcium uptake in the body?
Answer
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases the $Ca ^{2+}$ levels in the blood. PTH acts on bones and stimulates the process of bone resorption (dissolution/demineralisation). PTH also stimulates reabsorption of $Ca ^{2+}$ by the renal tubules and increases $Ca ^{2+}$ absorption from the digested food. It is, thus, clear that PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone, ie, it increases the blood $Ca ^{2+}$ levels. Along with TCT, it plays a significant role in calcium balance in the body.
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Question 142 Marks
Explain amplification of a signal in hormone action? What is its role?
Answer
Although hormones are present in very small amounts, they effectively regulate many physiological processes. This is the result of signal amplification, an increase in signal strength. For example, a single hormone receptor complex can stimulate the production of many cAMP molecules. In turn, each cAMP can activate a protein kinase that phosphorylates many protein molecules. In this way, a single hormone molecule can activate many proteins.
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Question 152 Marks
Due to some physiological reasons the blood glucose level of an otherwise normal person has risen above normal. How will this condition be returned to normal through hormone action?
Answer
Insulin will lowers blood glucose level by:
  1. Stimulating transport of glucose from blood to muscle and adipose cells and indirectly causing the liver to take up glucose.
  2. Promoting both oxidation of glucose and conversion of glucose into glycogen in muscles and liver cells.
  3. Inhibiting metabolic breakdown of stored glycogen in liver and muscle cells.
  4. Promoting synthesis of fats from glucose by adipose tissue and also inhibiting metabolic breakdown of fat.
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Question 162 Marks
Name two gonadotropins secreted by the anterior pituitary. Why are they called so?
Answer
  1. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) are the gonadotropins.
  2. Since they regulate the activity of gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females), they are called gonadotropins.
  3. Since they regulate the activity of gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females), they are called gonadotropins.
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Question 172 Marks
How do you justify the statement that hormones of adrenal medulla are emergency hormones?
Answer
Hormones of adrenal medulla, i.e., adrenaline and noradrenaline (belong to the category of compounds called catecholamines) are secreted in response to any kind of stress, danger and during emergency situations like fall in blood pressure or sugar, increase respiratory rate and heartbeat. CNS at the time of stress or danger stimulates adrenal medulla to release these hormones. All these conditions need more energy for their action. Thus, because these hormones prepare the body to face stress or danger hence, are called emergency hormones.
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Question 182 Marks
How does progesterone function in a human female?
Answer
Following are the functions performed by progesterone:
  1. Helps in maintaining pregnancy.
  2. Stimulates the development of secretory alveoli in mammary glands and secretion of milk.
  3. Its secretion is influenced by luteinising hormone of anterior pituitary.
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Question 192 Marks
Give the name of the endocrine gland that produces calcitonin and also mention the role played by this hormone.
Answer
Calcitonin (CT) or thyrocalcitonin hormone is produced by thyroid glands.
It is hypocalcaemic and hypophosphatemic peptide hormone, which checks excess plasma $Ca ^{2+}$ and phosphate by decrease mobilisation from bones.
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Question 202 Marks
Name the hormone and its source which produces changes in the secondary sex organs in human females, to prepare for the anticipated pregnancy.
Answer
Progesterone; it is secreted by the corpus luteum of the ovary.
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Question 212 Marks
What is the feedback or signal for the secretion of PTH? How does it function in our body?
Answer
  1. A decrease in the level of $Ca ^{++}$ in plasma.
  2. It increases plasma calcium by:
  • Stimulating reabsorption of $C^{++}$ by renal tubules.
  • Absorption of calcium from digested food.
  • Preventing elimination of $Ca ^{++}$ in urine.
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Question 222 Marks
Mention the two categories of hypothalamic hormones and their functions. Give one example of each.
Answer
Hypothalamic hormones are of two types:
  1. The releasing hormones: They stimulate the secretion of pituitary hormone, e.g. gonadotropin releasing hormone.
  2. The inhibiting hormones: They inhibit the secretion of pituitary hormones, e.g. somatostatin.
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Question 232 Marks
How many parathyroid glands does a human being have? Where are they located? Name the hormone secreted by them.
Answer
  1. Four parathyroid glands.
  2. They are present on the back of thyroid gland, one pair each in the two lobes of the thyroid.
  3. It secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH).
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Question 242 Marks
Mention the location and significance of thymus gland in human body.
Answer
  1. Thymus gland is located between the lungs behind the sternum on the ventral side of aorta.
  2. This gland plays a major role in the development of immune system of of the body in the following ways.
  • The thymosins secreted by the thymus has a role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes, which provide cell-mediated immunity.
  • It also stimulates the production of antibodies, which provide humoral immunity.
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Question 252 Marks
Name and describe the functions of the two hormones released by the posterior pituitary.
Answer
The posterior pituitary releases vasopressin and oxytocin.Vasopressin:
  • It acts on the kidney tubules and stimulates the reabsorption of water and electrolytes by the distal tubules and reduces the loss of water in the urine, i.e. it prevents diuresis.
Oxytocin:
  • It stimulates the vigorous contractions of smooth muscles of uterus to effect childbirth.
  • It also stimulates milk ejection from the mammary glands.
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Question 262 Marks
Name the hormones secreted by $\alpha-\text{cells}$ and $\beta-\text{cells}$ of pancreas. How is glucose homeostasis in our blood maintained by these hormones?
Answer
  1. $\alpha-\text{cells}$ secrete glucagon: It increases the level of blood glucose by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, leading to hyperglycemia.
  2. $\beta-\text{cells}$ secrete insulin: It enhances cellular uptake and utilisation of glucose and stimulates glycogenesis.
Thus, the two hormones maintain the glucose homeostasis.
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Question 272 Marks
Differentiate between glycogenesis and glycogenolysis and the hormone involved in each of them.
Answer
S. No
Glycogenesis
Glycogenolysis
1.
It is the process of formation of glycogen from glucose.
It is the process of breakdown of glycogen.
2.
It is stimulated by by insulin.
It is stimulated glucagon, cortisol and adrenaline.
3.
It results in hypoglycemia.
It results in hyperglycemia.
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Question 282 Marks
What is the source of vasopressin hormone? Where is it stored? Name the target organ of this hormone? State its function.
Answer
  1. The neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus secrete vasopressin.
  2. It is stored in the posterior pituitary.
  3. It acts on the kidney tubules.
  4. It stimulates reabsorption of water and electrolytes from the distal part of the tubules and reduces the loss of water through urine, i.e., it prevents diuresis.
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Question 292 Marks
When does the secretion of Adrenocorticotropin take place in the body? What is the purpose of its secretion?
Answer
Adrenocorticotropin is secreted when adrenocorticotropin Releasing Hormone (ACRH) stimulates the corticotroph cells of the anterior lobe of pituitary gland. It is released because its stimulation is responsible for the synthesis and secretion of glucocorticoid steroid hormone from the adrenal cortex of adrenal gland.
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Question 302 Marks
Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands.
Answer
Differences between endocrine and exocrine glands are:
S. No
Endocrine Glands
Exocrine Glands
1.
They do not have ducts.
They have ducts.
2.
They secrete hormones directly into the blood.
They secrete their secretions into the ducts.
3.
e.g., thyroid, hypothalamus, pituitary, etc.
e.g., sweat and oil glands (of skin) liver and salivary glands.
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Question 312 Marks
How do fight or flight hormones prepare our body to fight emergency?
Answer
Adrenaline and noradrenaline are rapidly secreted in response to stress of any kind and during emergency situations and are called emergency hormones or hormones of Fight or Flight. These hormones increase alertness, pupilary dilation, piloerection (raising of hairs), sweating etc. Both the hormones increase the heart beat, the strength of heart contraction and the rate of respiration. Finally the body is ready to counter the emergency situations.
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Question 322 Marks
Name the main mineralocorticoid in our body. What is its function?
Answer
  1. Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid in our body.
  2. Its function is to maintain.
  • Volume of body fluids
  • Osmotic pressure of body fluids.
  • Electrolyte balance.
  • Blood pressure.
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Question 332 Marks
Justify the name endocrine gland.
Answer
Endocrine glands are tubeless glands and their secretion is directly released on the target site. Because of the absence of tubes the hormone is secreted in the gland itself hence the name endocrine gland is given for them.
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Question 342 Marks
How does hypothyroidism affect adult women and pregnant women, respectively?
Answer
  1. In adult women, it causes irregularities in the menstrual cycle.
  2. In pregnant women, it causes defective development and maturation of the foetus, leading to the birth of a child with cretinism.
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Question 352 Marks
  1. Name the two hormones synthesised by Thyroid gland.
  2. Write the full form of the following:
  1. FSH
  2. LH
Answer
  1. Triiodothyronine ($\mathrm{T}_3$) Tetraiodothyronine ($\mathrm{T}_4$) or thyroxine.
  2.  
  1. Follicle-stimulating hormone.
  2. Luteinizing hormone.
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Question 362 Marks
Comment 'hormones are called informational molecules'.
Answer
Hormones are known as informational molecules because their synthesis takes place in one part of the body, i.e., the endocrine cells and are carried by the blood to another part of the body, i.e., target organ or tissues where they stimulate or inhibit the specific physiological processes according to the need of the body.
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Question 372 Marks
What are secondary sexual characters?
Answer
Characters which do not play direct role in sexual reproduction but are basically means of sexual differentiation are called secondary sexual characters. For example, facial hair and deep voice in males and thin voice in females are secondary sexual characters.
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Question 382 Marks
  1. Name two groups of steroid hormones produced by the ovaries. Also, write one function of each.
  2. Write the full form of the following:
  1. TSH
  2. ADH
Answer
  1. Estrogens and progesterone are the steroid hormones produced by the ovaries.
  1. Estrogens stimulate the growth, and activities of secondary sex organs, ovarian follicles and female sexual features.
  2. Progesterone is necessary to maintain pregnancy and it stimulates the growth of secretory alveoli and secretion of milk by the mammary glands.
  1.  
  1. Thyroid stimulating hormone.
  2. Anti-diuretic hormone.
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Question 392 Marks
Name the cells and their location in the testes, which secrete androgons/ testosterone.
Answer
  • Leydig cells/ Interstitial cells.
  • They are located in the intertubular spaces or interstitial tissue.
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Question 402 Marks
Name the peptide hormones secreted by the gastrointestinal tract and mention their functions in detail.
Answer
  1. Gastrin controls the secretion of gastric juice by the gastric glands.
  2. Secretin acts on the exocrine region of pancreas and stimulates the secretion of water and bicarbonate ions.
  3. Cholecystokinin (CCK) acts on pancreas to secrete pancreatic enzymes; it also acts on gall bladder to release bile juice into duodenum.
  4. Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP) inhibits gastric secretion and motility.
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Question 412 Marks
In countries where dietary intake of iodine is low, goitres, enlargement of the thyroid are common. What would you say about the chain of events leading to formation of goitre?
Answer
In the absence of iodine, neither thyroxine nor triiodothyronine hormone is produced, due to which their concentration in the blood decreases. To compensate this, the anterior pituitary secretes large amounts of TSH, which stimulate the growth of the thyroid gland, sometimes to gigantic proportions, leading to formation of goitre. However, enlargement of the gland cannot increase production of the hormones, because of the deficiency of the of main ingredient, i.e., thyroxine hormone.
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Question 422 Marks
The immune response of old persons becomes weak. Which endocrine gland is responsible for this? Name the hormone secreted by this gland and state the role of hormone in maintaining the immune system?
Answer
  1. Thymus gland is responsible for this.
  2. It secretes hormone thymosin.
  3. Thymosins play a major role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes that provide cell-mediated immunity.
  4. They also stimulate the formation of antibodies that provide humoral immunity.
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Question 432 Marks
What is exophthalmic goitre? Mention any four symptoms of the disorder.
Answer
  1. It is a form of hyperthyroidism, also known as Grave's disease.
  2. Its symptoms are:
  • Enlargement of thyroid gland.
  • Protrusion of eyeball.
  • Increased basal metabolic rate.
  • Weight loss.
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Question 442 Marks
Give two examples of hormones that have intracellular receptors.
Answer
Estrogen, progesterone, epinephrine, testosterone.
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Question 452 Marks
Which hormonal deficiency is responsible for the following?
  1. Diabetes mellitus.
  2. Cretinism.
Write one symptom for each deficiency.
Answer
  1. Deficiency of insulin:
  • Loss of glucose in urine.
  1. Deficiency of thyroid hormones (thyroxine) during pregnancy in the mother:
  • Mental retardation.
  • Stunted growth.
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Question 462 Marks
Name the hormones that regulate the following:
  1. Control of skin colour.
  2. Release of sugar from liver.
  3. Widening of pelvis at birth.
  4. Leydig's cells of testis.
Answer
  1. MSH.
  2. Glucagon.
  3. Relaxin.
  4. Interstitial cells.
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Question 472 Marks
Old people have weak immune system. What could be the reason?
Answer
The thymus gland secretes the hormone thymosin which plays a major role in differentiation of T-lymphocytes. T-lymphocytes are responsible for cell mediated immune response. In old age, the thymus gland gets degenerated resulting in reduced production of thymosin. Hence, old people have weak immune system.
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Question 482 Marks
What is the role-played by luteinizing hormones in males and females respectively?
Answer
LH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of androgens called male hormones. In females, LH is essential for ovulation. In females, LH induces ovulation of fully mature follicles (graafian follicles) and maintains the corpus luteum formed from the remnants of the graafian follicles after ovulation.
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Question 492 Marks
What name is given to:
  1. The cells of kidney, which secrete erythropoietin.
  2. The hormones secreted by liver.
Answer
  1. Juxtaglomerular cells.
  2. Growth factors.
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Question 502 Marks
Explain the function of melanin.
Answer
Melanin controls the circadian variations of the body. During 24 hours different organ system of our body works at different pace. During sleep certain body functions slow down. All of this is known as circadian rhythm. Additionally, melanin influences metabolism, pigmentation, menstruation and defence capability.
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Question 512 Marks
Differentiate between hypothyroidism and hyper thyroidism:
Answer
S. No
Hypothyroidism
Hyperthyroidism
1.
It refers to the deficient production of thyroid hormones.
It refers to the excess production of thyroid hormones.
2.
The basal metabolic rate is decreased.
The basal metabolic rate increases.
3.
It is caused by deficiency of iodine.
It is caused by tumor or cancer of thyroid glands.
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Question 522 Marks
What is meant by ‘synergistic effect'? Explain with an example.
Answer
It is a type of hormonal interaction, where two or more hormones complement each other's actions and both are needed for full expression of the hormone effects. e.g., the production, secretion and ejection of milk by mammary glands require the synergistic effects of oestrogens, progesterone, prolactin and oxytocin.
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Question 532 Marks
How are the hypothalamic hormones transported to target organs?
Answer
The hypothalamic hormones secreted by the neurosecretory cells called nuclei, transport through their axons and released from their nerve endings and mixed with blood of hypophyseal portal vein. These are then transported to anterior pituitary. The posterior pituitary hormones pass through the axons that reach the posterior pituitary and remain stored in the axon terminals, till they are stimulated for release.
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Question 542 Marks
Name two secondary messengers involved in hormone functioning.
Answer
$Ca ^{2+}$ ions, cyclic AMP, $IP _3$.
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Question 552 Marks
Mention any four physiological functions of glucocorticoids or cortisol in a human body.
Answer
  1. Cortisols stimulate gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and glycogenolysis, to increase the blood glucose level.
  2. They control cardiovascular system and blood pressure.
  3. They inhibit inflammatory reactions by suppressing immune system.
  4. They stimulate RBC production (erythropoiesis).
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Question 562 Marks
What is meant by ‘antagonistic effect? Illustrate your answer with an example.
Answer
It refers to the effect of a hormone that are countered by an antagonistic (opposing) signal, often another hormone. For example, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems achieve antagonistic effect on heartbeat. This mechanism involves the use of more than one second messenger. In heart cells cyclic form of adenosine monophosphate (CAMP) serves as a second messenger, speeding up muscle cell contraction in response to adrenaline, while cyclic guanosine monophosphate (CGMP) serves as another second messenger, slowing muscle contraction in response to acetylcholine.
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Question 572 Marks
What is acromegaly?
Answer
Excess secretion of growth hormone in adults, especially in middle age can result in severe disfigurement (especially of the face). This is called acromegaly. This can lead to serious complications and even death; if unchecked. The disease is hard to diagnose in the early stages and is frequently missed for many years, until changes in external features become noticeable.
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Question 582 Marks
What is acromegaly? What happens in this disorder?
Answer
Acromegaly refers to the severe disfigurement, especially of the face, due to excess secretion of growth hormone in adults. It may lead to death, if not treated.
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Question 592 Marks
The neural system and the endocrine system jointly coordinate and regulate the physiological function of our body. How are the two systems different from each other in their method of functioning?
Answer
S. No
Neural system
Endocrine system
1.
This provides point-to-point coordination in the form of electrical impulses through nerves.
This provides co-ordination through hormones, which are secreted by the endocrine glands into the blood.
2.
It is fast, but short lived.
It is slow, but effects prevail for sometime.
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Question 602 Marks
Describe the endocrine functions of thymus. (Any four)
Answer
Functions of thymus are as follows:
  1. It secretes thymosin, a peptide hormone that plays an important role in differentiation of T-lymphocytes.
  2. Release of thymosin provides cell-mediated immunity.
  3. It is also responsible for creating antibodies for the immune system during childhood.
  4. It gets degenerated with age due to which production of thymosin gets decreased.
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Question 612 Marks
Name the three layers of tissues of adrenal cortex. What general term is given to the hormones secreted by them? Name the hormones.
Answer
Zona glomerulosa, Zona fasciculata and Zona reticularis.
  1. The hormones are corticoids.
  2. Glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids and androgenic steroids.
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Question 622 Marks
Aakash suffered from frequent weight loss, weakness, nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. His father took him to the doctor who examined him and concluded that he is suffering from Addison's disease, which is a hormonal disorder.
  1. What is Addison's disease?
  2. Which endocrine gland secretes mineralocorticoids?
  3. What are the other effects caused by deficiency of mineralocorticoid?
  4. What values are displayed by Aakash's father?
Answer
  1. It is a disease caused by defeciency of mineralo corticoids.
  2. Adrenal cortex.
  3. Disturbance in level of electrolytes, body fluid volume osmotic pressure and blood pressure of the body.
  4. Akash's father is protective, caring and concerned for his son's health.
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