Physics Case study (4 Marks)

Read the passage given below and answer the following questions from 1 to 5. Every measurement involves errors. Thus, the result of measurement should be reported in a way that indicates the precision of measurement. Normally, the reported result of measurement is a number that includes all digits in the number that are known reliably plus the first digit that is uncertain. The reliable digits plus the first uncertain digit are known as significant digits or significant figures. If we say the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is 1.62 s, the digits 1 and 6 are reliable and certain, while the digit 2 is uncertain. Thus, the measured value has three significant figures.A choice of change of different units does not change the number of significant digits or figures in a measurement. This important remark makes most of the following observations clear,

• All the non-zero digits are significant.
• All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter where the decimal point is, if at all.
• If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point but to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant.
• The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number without a decimal point are not significant.[Thus 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has three significant figures, the trailing zero(s) being not significant.
• The trailing zero(s) in a number with a decimal point are significant. [The numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 have four significant figures each]
• For a number greater than 1, without any decimal, the trailing zero(s) are not significant.
• For a number with a decimal, the trailing zero(s) are significant

(b) The digit 0 conventionally put on the left of a decimal for a number less than 1 (like 0.1250) is never significant. However, the zeroes at the end of such number are significant in a measurement. (c) The multiplying or dividing factors which are neither rounded numbers nor numbers representing measured values are exact and have infinite number of significant digits. (d) In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as many significant figures as are there in the original number with the least significant figures.In addition or subtraction, the final result should retain as many decimal places as are there in the number with the least decimal places. For example, the sum of the numbers 436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g by mere arithmetic addition, is 663.821 g. But the least precise measurement (227.2 g) is correct to only one decimal place. The final result should, therefore, be rounded off to 663.8 g.

1. Significant figures in 12300 cm are:

1. 5
2. 4
3. 3
4. None of these

2. All the non-zero digits are:

1. Significant
2. Non significant
3. None of these

3. Give rules for significant figures

4. Give rules for addition and subtraction operations with significant figure

5. Give rules for multiplication and division operations with significant figure

Read the passage given below and answer the following questions from 1 to 5. In general, the errors in measurement can be broadly classified as (a) systematic errors and (b) random errors. Systematic errors: The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either positive or negative. Some of the sources of systematic errors are: (a) Instrumental errors that arise from the errors due to imperfect design or calibration of the measuring instrument, zero error in the instrument, etc. For example, the temperature graduations of a thermometer may be inadequately calibrated (it may read 104 °C at the boiling point of water at STP whereas it should read 100 °C); in a vernier calipers the zero mark of vernier scale may not coincide with the zero mark of the main scale, or simply an ordinary metre scale may be worn off at one end. (b) Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure to determine the temperature of a human body, a thermometer placed under the armpit will always give a temperature lowers than the actual value of the body temperature. (c) Personal errors that arise due to an individual’s bias, lack of proper setting of the apparatus or individual’s carelessness in taking observations without observing proper precautions, etc. For example, if you, by habit, always hold your head a bit too far to the right while reading the position of a needle on the scale, you will introduce an error due to parallax.Systematic errors can be minimized by improving experimental techniques, selecting better instruments and removing personal bias as far as possible. For a given set-up, these errors may be estimated to a certain extent and the necessary corrections may be applied to the readings. Random errors:The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are random with respect to sign and size. These can arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions (e.g. unpredictable fluctuations in temperature, voltage), personal (unbiased) errors by the observer taking readings, etc. For example, when the same person repeats the same observation, it is very likely that he may get different readings every time. Least count error: The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least count. All the readings or measured values are good only up to this value. The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.

1. The errors due to imperfect design or calibration of the measuring instrument:

1. Instrumental error
2. Random error
3. Least count error
4. None of the above

2. The errors which occur irregularly

1. Instrumental error
2. Personal error
3. Random error
4. None of these

3. Write a note on least count error

4. Write a note on random error

5. Write a note on systematic error