Biology Answer the following questions.

1. Avery, Macleod, and McCarty (1944) purified DNA, RNA, proteins (enzymes), and other materials from heat-killed S-type and mixed them with R-type to see which ones could transform living R-types to S-types.
2. Only those mixed with DNA were transformed into S-type bacteria.
3. They also discovered that protein-digesting enzymes (proteases) and RNA-digesting enzymes (RNases) did not affect transformation. This indicated the transforming substance was neither a protein nor RNA.
4. DNA digested with DNase inhibited transformation, suggesting that DNA caused the transformation.

1. In birds, the chromosomal mechanism of sex determination is ZW-ZZ type.
2. In this type females are heterogametic and produce two types of eggs; 50% of eggs carry Z-chromosome, while 50% of eggs carry W- chromosome.
3. Males are homogametic and produce one type of sperms. Each sperm carries a Z chromosome.
4. Thus, the sex of an individual depends on the kind of egg (ova) fertilized by the sperm.
   

1. Lactation is the process by which the mammary glands of the female start producing milk at the end of pregnancy.
2. Prolactin is the hormone that is responsible for its regular secretion.

1. Fruits provide nourishment to the developing seeds.
2. Fruits protect the seeds in immature conditions.
3. Seeds serve as important propagating organs (units) of plants.
4. Seeds and fruits develop special devices for their dispersal and thus help in the distribution of the species.

1. The organization of DNA is much more complex in eukaryotes.
2. Histone proteins are rich in lysine and arginine residues which are basic in nature and are positively charged.
3. These histones organize themselves to make a unit of 8 molecules known as histone octamer.
4. The negatively charged helical DNA is wrapped around the positively charged histone octamer, forming a structure known as a nucleosome.
5. The nucleosome core is made up of two molecules of each of four types of histone proteins viz. H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. H1 protein binds the DNA thread where it enters (arrives) and leaves the nucleosome.
6. One nucleosome approximately contains 200 base pair long DNA helix wound around it.
7. About 146 base pair long segment of DNA remains present in each nucleosome.
8. Nucleosomes are the repeating units of chromatin, which are threadlike, stained (coloured) bodies present in the nucleus. These look like ‘beads-on-string’ when observed under an electron microscope.
9. DNA helix of 200 bp wraps around the histone octamer by 1¾ turns.
10. Six such nucleosomes get coiled and then form a solenoid that looks like a coiled telephone wire.
11. The chromatin is packed to form a solenoid structure of 30 nm diameter (300Å) and further supercoiling tends to form a looped structure called chromatin fiber, which further coils and condenses at the metaphase stage to form the chromosomes.
12. The packaging of chromatin at higher levels needs an additional set of proteins that are called Non-Histone Chromosomal proteins (NHC).

1. It is a unique feature of angiosperms.
2. It ensures that the parent plant invests a seed with a food store, only if the egg is fertilized.
3. The diploid zygote develops into an embryo which consequently develops into a new plant.
4. The triploid PEN develops into nutritive endosperm tissue.
5. It restores the diploid condition by fusion of haploid male gamete with the haploid female gamete (i.e. through syngamy).
6. It also helps to avoid polyembryony.

1. In prokaryotes like E. coli, cell size is almost 2-3 µm long.
2. They lack a well-organized nucleus i.e. nucleus is without nuclear membrane and nucleolus.
3. The nucleoid is a small, circular, highly folded, naked ring of DNA which is 1100 µm (approximately 1.1 mm) long in perimeter, containing about 4.6 million base pairs.
4. The nucleoid is to be packaged into a cell that is approximately 2-3 µm long.
5. Hence, the negatively charged DNA becomes circular, reducing the size to 350 µm in diameter. This is further reduced to 30 µm in diameter because of folding/looping. 40-50 domains (loops) are formed.
6. The formation of loops is assisted by RNA connectors.
7. Each domain is further coiled and supercoiled, thereby reducing the size down to 2 µm in diameter.
8. This coiling (packaging) is assisted by positively charged HU (Histone like DNA binding proteins) proteins and enzymes like DNA gyrase and DNA topoisomerase I, for maintaining super coiled state.

1. Complete sex linkage:
   a. It is exhibited by genes located on non-homologous regions of X and Y chromosomes.
   b. They inherit together because crossing over does not occur in nonhomologous regions.
   c. Examples of X-linked traits are haemophilia, red-green colour blindness, myopia (near sightedness) and for Y-linked are hypertrichosis, etc.
2. Incomplete sex linkage:
   a. It is exhibited by genes located on homologous regions of X and Y chromosomes.
   b. They do not inherit together because crossing over occurs in homologous regions.
   c. Examples of X-Y linked traits are total colour blindness, nephritis, retinitis pigmentosa, etc.

1. Cleavage:
   Cleavage is the process of early mitotic division of the zygote into a hollow multicellular blastula. It does not involve the growth of the daughter cells. The cells formed by cleavage are called blastomeres. Since there is no growth phase between the cleavages, the size of blastomeres will be reduced with every successive cleavage. As the size reduces, the metabolic rate increases. Subsequent cleavages are thus faster than the earlier ones. This requires rapid replication of DNA and high consumption of oxygen.
2. Process of cleavage:
   In humans, cleavage is holoblastic i.e. the whole zygote gets divided. The cleavage planes may be longitudinal or meridional and equatorial or horizontal. It is radial and indeterminate i.e. fate of each blastomere is not predetermined. The 1st cleavage in the zygote is meridional and occurs about 30 hours after fertilization. It divides longitudinally into two blastomeres, one slightly larger than the other. The 2nd cleavage is also longitudinal but at the right angle to the 1st one and occurs after 30 hours of 1st cleavage. The 3rd cleavage is horizontal. After 3rd cleavage, the embryo is in the 8-cell stage. While the cleavages occur, the young embryo is gradually being pushed towards the uterus. By the end of the 4th day after fertilization, the embryo is a solid ball of 16-32 cells and externally looking like mulberry. This stage is thus called morula.
3. Morula:
   The morula shows cells of two types:

1. smaller, clearer cells towards the outer side.
2. inner cell mass of larger cells. Cells are compactly arranged. Till the formation of morula, the zona pellucida is retained around the embryo and thus, there is no change in the overall size from zygote to morula. The morula reaches the isthmus and gains entry into the uterus by the end of day 4.

These interactions can be intraspecific i.e. existing between organisms of same population, and interspecific i.e. between members of different species.

1. Cloning vectors are DNA molecules that carry a foreign DNA segment and replicate inside the host cell.
2. Following are the different types of vectors used in rDNA technology: Vectors may be plasmids, bacteriophages (M13, lambda virus).

1. Heterostyly (heteromorphy):
   Plants like Primula (Primrose) produce two or three types of flowers in which stigmas and anthers are placed at different levels (heterostyly and heteroanthy). This prevents the pollens from reaching the stigma and pollinating it. In heteromorphic flowers, pollen grains produced from anther pollinate stigmas produced at the same level. Thus self-pollination is not possible in such cases.
2. Herkogamy:
   It is a mechanical device to prevent self-pollination in a bisexual flower. In plants, a natural physical barrier is present between two sex organs and avoid contact of pollen with the stigma of the same flower, in e.g. Calotropis, pentangular stigma is positioned above the level of anthers (pollinia).

1. Water is in the liquid form at room temperature and is the best solvent for most of the solutes.
2. In pure form, it is the inert inorganic compound with neutral pH. Due to this, water is the best transporting medium for dissolved minerals and food molecules.
3. It is the best aqueous medium for all biochemical reactions occurring in the cells.
4. It is an essential raw material for photosynthesis.
5. Water has high specific heat, high heat of vaporization, and high heat of fusion. Due to this, it acts as a thermal buffer.
6. Water molecules have good adhesive and cohesive forces of attraction.
7. Due to high surface tension and high adhesive and cohesive force, it can easily rise in the capillaries.

Nucleosome

1. Chromosomes are found in pairs in somatic or diploid cells.
2. During gamete formation, homologous chromosomes pair, segregate and assort independently at meiosis. Due to this, each gamete contains only one chromosome of a pair.
3. Hereditary characters are carried by chromosomes which are present in the nucleus of these gametes.
4. Gametes (sperm and egg) contain all the hereditary characters. They form the link between parents and offsprings.
5. The union of sperm and egg during fertilization restores the diploid number of chromosomes.

1. Size and structure:
   It is non-cleidoic (without shell) and microlecithal (yolk is present in very small quantities). It is approximately 0.1mm (100 microns) in size. It is a rounded, nonmotile, haploid female gamete. The egg shows polarity i.e. the side having a germinal vesicle and the first polar body is called an animal pole while the side opposite to it is called the vegetal pole.
2. Nucleus:
   The nucleus of the egg appears large and is called a germinal vesicle. A typical nucleus or pronucleus is formed at the time of fertilization.
3. Cytoplasm:
   The cytoplasm of the egg is also called ooplasm. It is devoid of centrioles.
4. Membranes:
   The egg is surrounded by various coverings. The egg membrane is called the vitelline membrane. It secretes a non-cellular, glycoproteinous membrane with the zona pellucida on its outside. Adhering to the outer surface of zona pellucida are several radially elongated cells forming the corona radiata. These cells are derived from the innermost layer of granulosa cells. They are firmly held to the zona pellucida and to each other by hyaluronic acid (mucopolysaccharide). Between the vitelline membrane and the zona pellucida is a fluid-filled perivitelline space. The first polar body lies in this space.

1. Absolute Mortality: The number of deaths under ideal conditions (with no competition, abundance of resources such as food and water, etc.).
2. Realized Mortality: The number of deaths when environmental pressures come into play

1. In this type the gene is introduced only in somatic cells like bone marrow cells, hepatic cells, fibroblasts endothelium and pulmonary epithelial cells, central nervous system, endocrine cells and smooth muscle cells of blood vessel walls.
2. Somatic cell gene therapy is the only feasible option and the clinical trials have already employed for the treatment of acquired disorders such as cancer and rheumatoid arthritis and blood disorders including SCID, Gaucher’s disease, familial hypercholesterolemia, haemophilia, phenylketonuria, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anaemia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, emphysema, thalassemia etc.

1. Specificity: It can produce specific antibody or T-lymphocyte against a particular antigen/pathogen.
2. Diversity: It can recognize a vast variety of diverse pathogens or foreign molecules.

1. Flowers are usually brightly coloured, large, and showy.
2. They secrete profuse, dilute nectar.
3. Pollen grains are sticky and spiny.
4. Flowers are generally without fragrance, as birds have a poor sense of smell.

1. Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland.
2. Melatonin plays a very important role in the regulation of biological clock (e.g. 24-hour diurnal rhythm) of our body. It helps in maintaining the normal rhythm of sleep-wake cycle and also influences body temperature, metabolism and reproductive cycles.

1. The pigment found in erythrocytes is haemoglobin.
2. The enzyme found in erythrocytes is carbonic anhydrase.

1. It includes all the human beings existing today on the earth (modern man).
2. The cranial capacity of Homo sapiens is 1450 cc.
3. They had an erect posture.
4. Homo sapiens developed distinct races and developed cave art about 18000 years ago.

1. A few molecules of lactose enter into the cell by an enzyme permease.
2. A small amount of this enzyme is present even when the operon is switched off.
3. A few molecules of lactose, act as an inducer and bind to the repressor.
4. This repressor–inducer complex fails to join with the operator gene, which is then turned on.
5. Structural genes produce all enzymes. Thus, lactose acts as an inducer of its own breakdown.
6. When the inducer level falls, the operator is blocked again by a repressor. So structural genes are repressed/inactivated again. This is negative feedback.

1. Coat colour in cattle is a classic example of co-dominance.
2. There are two types, one with a red coat (skin with red colour hair) and the other with a white coat (with white hair).
3. When red cattle (RR) is crossed with white cattle (WW), F1 hybrids (RW) have roan colour. Roans have a mixture of red and white colour hair.
4. Thus, both traits are expressed equally. In F2 generation (produced by interbreeding of roans), red (RR), roans (RW) and white (WW) are produced in the ratio 1: 2: 1.

Phenotypic ratio → 1 : 2 : 1 (1 Red coat : 2 Roan : 1 White coat)

Genotypic ratio → 1 : 2 : 1 (1 RR : 2 RW : 1 WW)

1. Vestibule:
   It is a median vertical depression of vulva enclosing the urethral and vaginal opening.
2. Labia minora:
   These are another pair of thin folds inner to the labia majora with which they merge posteriorly to form the fourchette (frenulum), while towards the anterior end they converge into a hood-like covering around the clitoris.
   
3. Clitoris:
   A small conical and sensitive projection lying at the anterior end of labia minora. It has a pair of erectile tissue i.e. corpora cavernosa which is homologous to the penis.
4. Labia majora:
   These are a pair of fleshy folds of skin forming the boundary of the vulva. They are homologous to the scrotum. They surround and protect the other parts of the external genitalia and enclose the urethral and vaginal openings in the vestibule.
5. Mons pubis:
   It is a fleshy elevation above the labia majora. The Mons pubis and outer part of labia majora show pubic hair.

i. Adaptations of plants for aquatic and desert habitats:

a. Adaptations of plants for aquatic habitats:

1. Leaves and stem of some aquatic plants show presence of aerenchyma tissue which helps in exchange of gases between plant organs above the water surface and submerged plant organs.
2. Many aquatic plants have flat leaves to receive maximum sunlight for photosynthesis. Leaves of submerged plants are often dissected to minimize water resistance.

b. Adaptations of plants for desert habitats:

1. Many desert plants have a thick cuticle on their leaf surfaces and have their stomata in deep pits to minimize loss of water through transpiration.
2. They show a special photosynthetic pathway (CAM - Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) that enables their stomata to remain closed during daytime.

Example- Potatoes, tomatoes, bananas, soybeans, alfalfa and cereals are the most common foods proposed for edible vaccine delivery

1. Mother’s milk provides naturally acquired passive immunity to the newborn.
2. After birth, antibodies are transferred from the mother to infant through colostrum (first milk of mother) and continue throughout the period breast feeding.

1. The flowers are small, inconspicuous, colourless, without nectar and fragrance (odour).
2. The pollen grains are light in weight, dry and produced in large numbers to increase chances of pollination considering wastage of pollen grains.
3. Stigma is feathery to trap pollens carried by wind currents.
4. Stamens are exserted with long filaments and versatile anthers.
5. Stamens and stigmas are exposed to air currents.

1. Cortisol is the glucocorticoid used in treatment of allergy.
2. Cortisol is immunosuppressive i.e. it suppresses the synthesis of antibodies Hence, it is used in treatment of allergy

1. Intracellular transport: In Parameocium, Amoeba, root hair cells of many plants and WBCs in animals, transportation of materials occurs within the cell due to the streaming movement of the cytoplasm known as cyclosis. This is known as intracellular transport.
2. Extracellular transport: In roundworms there are no blood vessels and the body fluid is moved around the viscera by contraction of body wall and muscles. This is extracellular transport.

1. Root hair is a cytoplasmic extension (prolongation) of epiblema cell.
2. Each root hair may be approximately 1 to 10 mm long and tube-like structure.
3. It is colourless, unbranched, short-lived (ephemeral), and very delicate.
4. It has a large central vacuole surrounded by a thin film of cytoplasm, plasma membrane, and thin cell wall, which is two-layered.
5. Outer layer is composed of pectin and the inner layer is made up of cellulose.
6. Cell wall of a root hair is freely permeable but the plasma membrane is selectively permeable.

1. Freedom of forelimbs from locomotory function.
2. Opposable thumb These factors led to better utilization of hands for holding objects effectively and development of motor skills etc.

1. Incomplete dominance is a deviation of Mendel’s law of dominance.
2. In incomplete dominance, both the alleles (genes) of an allelomorphic pair express themselves partially.
3. One allele (gene) cannot suppress the expression of the other allele (gene) completely.
4. In such case, there is an intermediate expression in the F1 hybrid.
5. In Mirabilis jalapa, if a red-flowered (RR) plant is crossed with a white-flowered (RR) plant, then F1 offsprings have pink (Rr) flowers.

F2 Generation: Selfing of F1

Result:
Genotypic ratio - 1RR : 2Rr : 1rr
Phenotypic ratio - 1Red : 2 Pink :1 White

1. Infundibulum:
   The proximal funnel-like part with an opening called ostium surrounded by many finger-like processes called fimbriae (of these at least one is long and connected to the ovary). The cilia and the movement of fimbriae help in transporting the ovulated egg to the ostium.
2. Ampulla:
   It is the middle, long and straight part of the oviduct. Fertilization of the ovum takes place in this region.
3. Isthmus/Cornua:
   The distal narrow part of the duct opening into the uterus.
4. Functions:

1. Fallopian tubes carry the released egg from the ovary to the uterus.
2. Ampulla provides the site for fertilization of the ovum.

1. It is considered the most ecologically relevant environmental factor
2. Eurythermal organisms can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of temperatures and stenothermal organisms can tolerate narrow range of temperatures.

1. Gastro-intestinal discomfort accompanied with vomiting and fever.
2. Presence of live worms in faecal matter.
3. Pulmonary disorders occur in some patients. e.g. Pneumonitis (inflammation in alveolar wall).
4. Loss of appetite and weight loss.

1. In angiosperms, female gametophyte present in the ovule is haploid embryo-sac. Each embryo-sac contains egg apparatus, 3 antipodal cells, and 2 polar nuclei.
2. The Egg apparatus consists of the large central, haploid egg cells and two supporting haploid synergid cells. Synergid shows hair-like projections called filiform apparatus, which guide the pollen tube towards the egg.
3. Antipodal cells are a group of three cells present at the chalazal end.
4. The two haploid polar nuclei of large central cells fuse to form a diploid secondary nucleus or definitive nucleus, just prior to fertilization.

1. Progesterone: It is secreted by corpus luteum of the ovary after ovulation. It is essential for thickening of uterine endometrium, thus preparing the uterus for implantation of fertilized ovum. It is responsible for development of mammary glands during pregnancy. It inhibits uterine contractions during pregnancy.
2. Oestrogen: It is secreted by developing follicles. Estradiol is the main oestrogen. It is responsible for development of secondary sexual characters in females.

1. In the presence of carbon monoxide, haemoglobin readily combines to form a stable compound called carboxyhaemoglobin.
2. The formation of carboxyhaemoglobin prevents the binding of oxygen with haemoglobin and less haemoglobin is available for oxygen transport depriving the cells of oxygen.

1. Definition:
   The mutation is a phenomenon in which sudden change in the DNA sequence takes place which results in the change of genotype and ultimately variation in the phenotype.
2. Types of mutations:

1. Point mutations
2. Frameshift mutation or deletion mutation.

1. A test cross is used to find out the genotype of any plant with dominant expression when it is not known whether it is homozygous (pure) or heterozygous for that trait.
2. For example, a pea plant having purple flowers (F1 hybrid with unknown genotype) is crossed with a pea plant with white flowers (recessive).
3. If all flowers produced are purple, we can conclude that plant is pure or homozygous and if we get purple and white flowers in a 1:1 ratio, conclude that plant is heterozygous.
4. Following is the graphical representation for test cross:

1. Assume that purple flower is Homozygous dominant (PP).
   All flowers are purple. Thus, the F1 hybrid is homozygous dominant (PP).
2. Assume that purple flower is Heterozygous dominant (Pp).
   
   Half of the flowers are purple and half are white. Thus, the F1 hybrid is heterozygous dominant (Pp).

1. The Graafian follicle is a mature ovarian follicle.
2. The secondary oocyte is located eccentrically (away from the centre) and is surrounded by a non-cellular layer of zona pellucida secreted by the vitelline membrane of the oocyte,
3. There are three layers covering the Graafian follicle. They are as follows:
4. The outermost protective and fibrous covering is called theca externa.
5. Inner to it is cellular theca interna which produces the hormone estrogen.
6. Inner to the theca interna, the follicular cells from the membrane granulosa.
7. From the membrane granulosa, the cells differentiate into discus proligerus and the corona radiata cells.
8. Oocyte and the surrounding granulosa cells are together termed as Cumulus oophorus.
9. A fluid-filled cavity called antrum lies between the oocyte and the membrane granulosa. It is filled with a fluid called liquor folliculi.

In such a case, it is called as invasive species. One of the major reasons of such a harmful effect of alien species is lack of local predator.

1. Introduction of predator fish - Nile perch in Lake Victoria proved deleterious for 200 local species of Cichlid fish.

1. The commercially important fish like Atlantic salmon, catfish, goldfish, Tilapia, zebra-fish, common carp, rainbow trout, etc. are transfected with growth hormone, chicken crystalline protein and E. coli hygromycin resistance gene.
2. Transgenic fish showed increased cold tolerance and improved growth and it is the quantity and quality of fish proteins as well as its preservation, are the factors affecting the economic value of fish.

1. Mushrooms are rich in proteins, vitamins, minerals and amino acids.
2. They are also low in calories. Therefore, dietician advised her to include mushrooms in her diet.

1. Chemotherapy
2. Radiotherapy
3. Surgery
4. Immunotherapy

b. When plants are decapitated, removal of apical bud results in growth of lateral buds which gives bushy appearance to plants.

c. Thus, pruning is done to encourage growth of more shoots with softer leaves.

ii. The gardener should be aware of the property of apical dominance.

1. Gravitational water: The water which percolates deep in the soil, due to gravity is called ‘gravitational water’. This water goes beyond the reach of roots of most of the plants, thus is not available to plants for absorption.
2. Hygroscopic water: Fine soil particles imbibe/absorb water and hold it very tightly. This is called ‘hygroscopic water. Roots cannot absorb it.
3. Combined water: Water present in the form of hydrated oxides of silicon, aluminium, etc., is called ‘combined water’. It is also not available to plants for absorption. iv. Capillary water: Some amount of water is held in pores present between the neighbouring soil particles, due to capillarity. This is called capillary water which is available for absorption.

1. Factors like overall stability of tropical regions (at lower latitudes) for millions of years, lesser climatic changes throughout the year and availability of plenty of sunlight have favoured speciation.
2. Tropical areas have less often experienced drastic disturbances like periodic glaciations observed at poles. Such stability over millions of years might have favoured speciation.
3. Lesser migrations in tropics might have reduced gene flow between geographically isolated regions and favoured speciation.
4. Scientists also have considered availability of more intense sunlight, warmer temperatures and higher annual rainfall in tropics, as factors responsible for bountifulness of these regions.

1. Primary succession starts in the area where no living organisms ever existed.
2. In case of secondary succession, since soil is already present, the succession rate is faster and hence climax is also reached quickly. Hence, primary succession is always slower than secondary succession.

OR

Individuals live in groups in a well-defined geographical area, share or compete for similar resources, potentially interbreed and thus form a population.

OR

The population is defined as a group of individuals of a species occupying a definite geographic area at a given time.

1. Whole genome sequencing,
2. Identifying gene function.

1. Epithelial surface
2. Antimicrobial substances in blood and tissues
3. Cellular factors in innate immunity
4. Fever

1. The process of formation of microspores from diploid microspore mother cell through meiotic cell division inside the microsporangia or pollen sacs is called microsporogenesis.
2. Structure of microspore:
   Pollen grain/microspore is a non-motile, haploid, unicellular body with a single nucleus. It is surrounded by a two-layered wall called sporoderm. The outer wall is called exine and the inner wall is called intine.
3. Exine:
   The exine is thick and made up of a complex, non-biodegradable, substance called sporopollenin and it is resistant to chemicals. It may be smooth or with a sculptured pattern (characteristic of the species). At some places, exine is very thin showing thin areas known as germ pores. Germ-pores are meant for the growth of emerging pollen tubes during the germination of the pollen grain.
4. Intine:
   The inner wall layer, intine consists of cellulose and pectin.

1. Medulla oblongata is a part of brain stem which controls involuntary vital functions like heartbeat, respiration, vasomotor activities and peristalsis.
2. Thus, injury to medulla oblongata may disrupt these vital functions and cause sudden death.

1. Water is in liquid form at room temperature and is the best solvent for most of the solutes.
2. In pure form, it is the inert inorganic compound with neutral pH. Due to this, water is the best transporting medium for dissolved minerals and food molecules.
3. It is the best aqueous medium for all biochemical reactions occurring in the cells.
4. It is an essential raw material for photosynthesis.
5. Water has high specific heat, high heat of vaporization, and high heat of fusion. Due to this, it acts as a thermal buffer.
6. Water molecules have good adhesive and cohesive forces of attraction.
7. Due to high surface tension and high adhesive and cohesive force, it can easily rise in the capillaries. This is why water is called as ‘Elixir of Life'.

1. Bipedal locomotion
2. Erect posture
3. Stereoscopic vision.

1. His experiments were carefully planned and involved a large sample.
2. He carefully recorded the number of plants of each type and expressed his results as ratios.
3. In the pea plant, contrasting characters can be easily recognized.
4. The seven different characters in the pea plant were controlled by a single factor each.
5. The factors are located on separate chromosomes and these factors are transmitted from generation to generation.

1. IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
2. NBA: National Biodiversity Authority

1. Depending on the availability of water, there are two types of succession − hydrarch succession (hydrosere) and xerarch succession (xerosere).
2. Xerarch succession takes place in dry areas and the series progress for xeric to mesic conditions.

1. Biopiracy is defined as ‘theft of various natural products and then selling them by getting patent without giving any benefits or compensation back to the host country’.
2. Since ancient times, Indians have been using Haldi (Turmeric powder) as antiseptic for healing wounds for killing pests and medicinal purposes

1. Grit Chamber
2. Primary sedimentation tank.
3. Settling tank
4. . Aeration tanks

1. Helper T-cells
2. Killer T-cells or Cytotoxic T-cells
3. Suppressor T-cells iv. Memory T-cells

1. Thalassemia is an autosomal, inherited recessive disease.
2. A haemoglobin molecule is made of four polypeptide chains- 2 alpha (α) and 2 betas (β) chains.
3. The synthesis of alpha chains is controlled by two closely linked genes (HBA1 and HBA2) on chromosome 16 while the synthesis of the beta chain is controlled by a single gene (HBB) on chromosome 11.
4. Depending upon which chain of haemoglobin is affected, thalassemia is classified as alpha-thalassemia and beta-thalassemia.
5. It is caused due to deletion or mutation of a gene that codes for alpha (α) and beta (β) globin chains that result in the abnormal synthesis of haemoglobin.
6. Symptoms: In Thalassemia, the person shows symptoms like anemia, pale yellow skin, change in size and shape of RBCs, slow growth and development, dark urine, etc.
7. Massive blood transfusion is needed for these patients.
8. Thalassemia differs from sickle-cell anemia. Thalassemia is a quantitative problem of synthesizing few globin molecules, while sickle cell anemia is a qualitative problem of synthesizing an incorrectly functional globin.

1. Polyembryony is the occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed which consequently results in the emergence of multiple seedlings.
2. The additional embryos result from the differentiation and development of various maternal and zygotic tissues associated with the ovule of the seed.
3. In adventive polyembryony, an embryo develops directly from the diploid cell of nucellus and integuments as in Citrus.
4. In cleavage polyembryony, zygote proembryo sometimes divides (cleaves) into many parts or units. Each unit then develops into an embryo.

i. To create awareness among people about various aspects related to reproduction.

ii. To provide facilities to people in order to understand and build up reproductive health.

iii. To provide support for building up a reproductively healthy society.

iv. To bring about a change mainly in three critical health indicators i.e. reducing total infertility rate, infant mortality rate, and maternal mortality rate.